Ben Jonson

Jonson's breakthrough comedy that established the 'comedy of humours' as a dramatic genre. The play satirizes various character types, each dominated by a particular 'humour' or psychological trait according to medieval physiology. The original version was set in Italy, but Jonson later revised it to an English setting, demonstrating his commitment to depicting contemporary London society. The plot revolves around the attempts of the elder Knowell to monitor his son's behavior, while various characters exhibit their particular humours or obsessions. Shakespeare reportedly acted in the original production, marking the beginning of the complex relationship between the two playwrights.

Follows classical five-act structure:
Act I: Introduction of characters and their humours
Act II: Complications and deceptions begin
Act III: Deceptions multiply and characters reveal their obsessions
Act IV: Conflicts intensify and misunderstandings peak
Act V: Resolution by Justice Clement

Note: The play adheres closely to the classical unities of time (taking place in a single day), place (set entirely in London), and action (focusing on a single plot with related subplots). Jonson later wrote a sequel, 'Every Man Out of His Humour' (1599), which was less successful but further developed his humours theory.

Jonson's darkest and most brilliant comedy, a savage satire on human greed and moral corruption set in Venice. The wealthy Volpone, assisted by his parasite Mosca, pretends to be dying to trick legacy hunters into giving him gifts in hopes of being named his heir. The plot grows increasingly complex as Volpone's lust for Celia, the wife of one would-be heir, leads to attempted seduction and eventually to the unraveling of his schemes. The play combines elements of beast fable (characters are named after animals reflecting their natures), classical satire, and Italian commedia dell'arte. Unlike Shakespeare's more forgiving comedies, Jonson's play ends with harsh punishment for the villains, reflecting his moral vision and commitment to poetic justice.

Classical five-act structure with prologue and epilogue:
Prologue: Jonson defends his artistic principles
Act I: Volpone and Mosca's scheme is established
Act II: Complications with Celia and Corvino
Act III: Attempted seduction and Bonario's intervention
Act IV: The trial where justice is initially perverted
Act V: Final exposure, judgment, and punishment
Epilogue: Moral conclusion

Note: The play observes the classical unities while creating a complex plot. Jonson's moral vision is evident in the harsh punishments assigned to characters based on their level of vice. The Venetian setting allows Jonson to critique English society while maintaining plausible deniability. The play was first performed by the King's Men at the Globe Theatre and at Oxford and Cambridge Universities.

Widely considered Jonson's comic masterpiece, this play presents a brilliant satire of human greed and gullibility. Set in plague-time London, the story follows three confidence tricksters—Subtle (posing as an alchemist), Face (a butler who has taken over his absent master's house), and Dol Common (their female accomplice)—who prey on a parade of victims, each representing different aspects of social folly. The victims seek various impossible dreams: the philosopher's stone, the elixir of youth, a widow to marry, success in gambling, and more. The play's technical brilliance lies in its perfect adherence to classical unities, its intricate plotting, and its linguistic virtuosity. The satire targets not only the victims' greed but also contemporary pseudoscience, religious hypocrisy, and social climbing.

Perfect adherence to classical unities:
- Unity of Time: Single day from morning to evening
- Unity of Place: Single setting (Lovewit's house)
- Unity of Action: All plots revolve around the central scheme

Five-act structure:
Act I: Introduction of the con artists and initial victims
Act II: Sir Epicure Mammon's grand delusions
Act III: Multiple victims overlap, creating complications
Act IV: Surly's disguise and attempted exposure
Act V: Lovewit's return and Face's clever resolution

Note: Considered Jonson's most perfectly constructed play, with mathematical precision in its plotting. The play satirizes not just alchemy but all forms of credulity and deception in Jacobean society. The setting during plague time (when wealthy citizens fled London) provides both plot motivation and metaphorical resonance. The play was first performed by the King's Men at the Globe Theatre in 1610.

Jonson's most expansive and carnivalesque comedy, set at the annual Bartholomew Fair in Smithfield, London. The play abandons the tight classical structure of his earlier works for a panoramic view of London society, featuring over thirty speaking roles from all social classes. The plot follows several intersecting storylines: Justice Overdo's disguised attempt to uncover fair abuses; a Puritan's opposition to the fair's licentiousness; and various romantic and social entanglements. The play celebrates popular culture while satirizing extremism of all kinds, particularly Puritan hypocrisy and judicial overreach. Unlike Jonson's earlier comedies, Bartholomew Fair ends with reconciliation rather than punishment, suggesting a more tolerant vision in his later work. The play's rich language captures the diverse dialects and jargons of early 17th-century London.

Five-act structure with induction:
Induction: Stage-keeper, Book-holder, and Scrivener introduce the play
Act I: Characters prepare to visit the fair
Act II: Arrival at the fair and initial encounters
Act III: Various schemes and conflicts develop
Act IV: Complications multiply, puppet show controversy
Act V: Revelations, reconciliations, and invitation to feast

Note: Represents Jonson's most democratic vision, giving voice to characters from all social levels. The play deliberately breaks from classical unities to capture the chaotic vitality of the fair. The puppet show in Act V, which parodies both Puritan objections to theater and contemporary plays (possibly including Jonson's own), creates a meta-theatrical commentary on drama itself. First performed by the Lady Elizabeth's Men at the Hope Theatre, Bankside, in 1614.

A brilliant farce centered on Morose, a man with a pathological aversion to noise who plans to marry the supposedly silent Epicene to disinherit his nephew Dauphine. After the wedding, Epicene reveals herself to be talkative and invites noisy friends to celebrate, driving Morose to desperation. He seeks to annul the marriage, but all attempts fail until Dauphine offers help in exchange for securing his inheritance. The shocking revelation at the play's conclusion—that Epicene is actually a boy in disguise—provides one of the most surprising denouements in Renaissance drama. The play satirizes various social types, particularly the 'collegiates,' a group of proto-feminist women, and various affected courtiers and would-be intellectuals.

Classical five-act structure:
Act I: Introduction of Morose's character and marriage plans
Act II: The wedding and immediate revelation of Epicene's true nature
Act III: Morose's suffering intensifies with noisy visitors
Act IV: Failed attempts to annul the marriage
Act V: Dauphine's bargain and the final revelation

Note: The play adheres to classical unities and demonstrates Jonson's skill at plotting. It was controversial for its satirical portrayal of women, particularly the 'collegiates.' The play was performed by the Children of Her Majesty's Revels at the Whitefriars Theatre. It was suppressed after its first performance due to perceived insults to Lady Arabella Stuart but was revived after the Restoration and became one of Jonson's most performed plays.

Jonson's first major tragedy, based on the historical rise and fall of Sejanus, the ambitious favorite of Roman Emperor Tiberius. The play meticulously reconstructs ancient Rome through extensive research, with Jonson providing scholarly annotations to document his historical sources. Unlike Shakespeare's more psychological approach to Roman history, Jonson focuses on political machinations and the corruption of the state. The play depicts Sejanus's ruthless elimination of rivals, his attempt to marry into the imperial family, and his eventual downfall orchestrated by Tiberius and Macro. The work's uncompromising portrayal of political corruption and tyranny proved controversial, leading to Jonson being called before the Privy Council on charges of 'popery and treason,' though he was eventually cleared.

Five-act classical structure:
Act I: Sejanus's power and initial plots
Act II: Elimination of rivals and seduction of Livia
Act III: Murder of Drusus and persecution of Agrippina's supporters
Act IV: Sejanus reaches the height of power and prepares final moves
Act V: Tiberius's counter-plot and Sejanus's destruction

Note: The play's failure on stage taught Jonson valuable lessons about theatrical tragedy versus historical accuracy. He later commented that he abandoned strict classical form in his next tragedy, 'Catiline His Conspiracy' (1611). The original production featured Shakespeare in the cast, one of his few known acting roles outside his own company. Jonson's meticulous research and annotations make this one of the most historically accurate Roman plays of the Renaissance.

Jonson's first major court masque, commissioned by Queen Anne of Denmark who wished to appear with her ladies as 'blackamoors.' The masque presents twelve African nymphs, daughters of Niger, who journey to Britain seeking to transform their blackness to white, having heard of a land whose name ends in 'Tania' (Britannia) where the sun god can transform them. The work combines spectacular visual elements designed by architect Inigo Jones with Jonson's poetry and classical learning. While problematic to modern sensibilities in its racial attitudes, the masque reflects contemporary aesthetic values and imperial ideology. It established the pattern for Jonson's future masques: classical framework, allegorical characters, spectacular visual effects, and culmination in harmonious dancing that symbolically incorporated the royal audience.

Typical masque structure:
- Anti-masque: Presentation of disorder (Niger's confusion)
- Main masque: Introduction of order (explanation of the nymphs' journey)
- Transformation: Resolution through royal power
- Revels: Dancing that incorporates the royal audience

Note: First collaboration between Jonson and architect Inigo Jones, beginning a partnership that would produce many court masques but eventually end in bitter rivalry. The masque cost over £3,000, an enormous sum for a single evening's entertainment. Performed at the Banqueting House, Whitehall Palace on Twelfth Night, 1605. Jonson later wrote a sequel, 'The Masque of Beauty' (1608).

A carefully arranged collection of fifteen poems published in Jonson's 1616 folio Works, the first time a living English author had published his collected works. The collection demonstrates Jonson's versatility as a poet, ranging from intimate lyrics and elegies to country-house poems and moral epistles. The title suggests both classical inspiration (Horace's Silvae) and the varied nature of the collection. The poems reveal Jonson's skill in adapting classical forms to English subjects and his ability to move between public and private modes of address. The collection includes some of his most famous lyrics, such as 'To Penshurst' (establishing the country-house poem genre) and 'To Celia' (beginning 'Drink to me only with thine eyes').

A more extensive and varied collection of Jonson's poems published posthumously in the 1640 edition of his Works. While The Forest was carefully arranged by Jonson himself, Underwood represents a more miscellaneous gathering of poems from throughout his career, including religious poems, political verses, epistles, odes, epitaphs, and occasional pieces. The collection reveals Jonson's development as a poet and his engagement with the major events and figures of his time. It includes both public, ceremonial poetry and more intimate, personal verses, demonstrating his range and versatility.

Jonson's collection of prose observations on literature, morality, politics, and human nature, published posthumously. The work follows the Renaissance commonplace book tradition, gathering quotations, reflections, and critical judgments. It includes Jonson's famous comments on Shakespeare ('I loved the man, and do honour his memory, on this side idolatry, as much as any') as well as his thoughts on style, rhetoric, poetry, and the English language. The work reveals Jonson's classical learning, critical acumen, and his role as the first major English literary critic. Though fragmentary in nature, Discoveries provides invaluable insight into Jonson's literary theory and his understanding of his craft.

Note: Represents the culmination of Jonson's critical thinking and his most significant contribution to literary theory in the Renaissance. The work influenced later critics and established many principles of neoclassical criticism that would dominate English literature until the Romantic period.